Ethiopia Migration Issues and Solutions

 Ethiopia Migration Issues and Solutions

By Tahir Ali Shah

Executive Summary:

Ethiopia stands as a critical juncture in the Horn of Africa's migration landscape, characterized by a complex interplay of internal and international movements. The nation serves as a significant point of origin, transit, and destination for migrants, a dynamic shaped by a confluence of economic, political, environmental, and social factors. While Ethiopia has experienced rapid economic growth, it continues to grapple with widespread poverty, creating a paradox that fuels both internal rural-urban migration and international emigration in search of better livelihood opportunities. The country also hosts the second-largest refugee population in Africa, primarily from neighboring nations embroiled in conflict and instability, placing considerable strain on its resources. Furthermore, internal displacement due to conflict and environmental crises affects millions within Ethiopia's borders. Efforts to address these multifaceted migration issues are being undertaken by the Ethiopian government, international organizations such as UNHCR and IOM, and various non-governmental entities. These initiatives range from policy reforms and humanitarian assistance to peacebuilding efforts and climate change adaptation strategies, all aimed at improving migration governance, protecting vulnerable populations, and fostering durable solutions for displacement. However, significant challenges persist, including regional instability, economic constraints, funding limitations, and social tensions, requiring sustained and coordinated efforts to effectively manage migration and its impacts on Ethiopia.

Introduction: Ethiopia as a Migration Hub:

Strategically located in the Horn of Africa, Ethiopia shares borders with all countries in this sub-region, a geographical position that renders it a pivotal hub and transit corridor for migration flows, in addition to being a notable point of departure and a destination for those on the move. This central location inherently ties Ethiopia to the broader migration dynamics of East Africa, necessitating a comprehensive understanding of both its internal population movements and its role in cross-border migration. Adding to this complexity is the nation's unique socio-economic profile. Despite boasting one of Africa's fastest-growing economies, Ethiopia simultaneously contends with high levels of poverty. This apparent contradiction suggests that the benefits of economic growth have not yet been distributed equitably or generated sufficient opportunities to mitigate migration driven by economic necessity.  

Ethiopia's role as a major host nation is underscored by its status as the country with the second-largest refugee population on the African continent. It provides refuge to a substantial number of refugees and asylum-seekers, predominantly originating from South Sudan, Somalia, and Eritrea. This commitment to hosting refugees, while commendable, places a significant burden on Ethiopia's infrastructure and resources, necessitating robust and well-supported refugee management systems. The protracted conflicts and instability in neighboring countries directly contribute to these large refugee inflows, demanding long-term planning and substantial resources for the protection and well-being of these displaced populations. In addition to its role in international migration, Ethiopia also experiences considerable internal displacement. Conflict, environmental crises, and other complex factors force millions of Ethiopians to leave their homes within the country's borders. This internal displacement presents distinct challenges related to the provision of humanitarian aid, ensuring the protection of displaced persons, and the crucial pursuit of durable solutions within Ethiopia itself.  

Drivers of Ethiopian Migration:

A multitude of interconnected factors propel migration both within and from Ethiopia. These drivers can be broadly categorized as economic, political, environmental, and social.

Economic Push and Pull Factors:

Poverty and a scarcity of viable livelihood opportunities stand as primary catalysts for both internal and international migration involving Ethiopians. Economic desperation compels individuals to seek better prospects elsewhere, often leading them to undertake perilous journeys through irregular channels. The limited availability of job opportunities, coupled with low wages and a lack of economic diversification, particularly in rural areas, pushes people, especially the youth, towards urban centers or abroad in search of employment and a more stable income. Indeed, research indicates that rural poverty (26%) and the allure of better job opportunities (44%) are the foremost reasons behind rural-urban migration within Ethiopia. This stark disparity in economic prospects between rural and urban areas underscores the concentration of development and economic activities in urban centers, which act as a significant pull factor, drawing individuals away from the perceived lack of hope and prospects in rural settings.  

Beyond immediate economic needs, the aspiration for further education (10%) and the ambition to start a business (8%) also significantly contribute to the phenomenon of rural-urban migration. This highlights that internal migration is not solely driven by survival but also by aspirations for personal and professional advancement. Young individuals, particularly those who have attained some level of education, often migrate to cities to gain access to superior educational institutions and to explore the potential for entrepreneurial ventures. Conversely, Ethiopia grapples with the issue of "brain drain," as limited opportunities available to its highly skilled and educated citizens at home prompt them to seek more promising careers and better compensation in other countries. This out-migration of professionals represents a significant loss of human capital, hindering the nation's development and capacity-building efforts. The persistent economic hardship within Ethiopia also serves as a key factor driving irregular migration, despite the known risks of exploitation and abuse associated with such journeys. Ironically, the government's imposition of a ban on labor migration to the Gulf region, initially intended to safeguard its citizens from exploitation, inadvertently pushed more individuals towards these irregular and dangerous routes due to their underlying economic desperation. When legal avenues for migration are restricted, individuals often feel compelled to utilize smugglers and traffickers, thereby increasing their vulnerability to a wide range of abuses, including exploitation, trafficking, and violence. It is also observed that rising levels of development within a country can paradoxically lead to an increase in emigration. As a nation's Gross Domestic Product increases and access to formal education expands, individuals often develop higher aspirations and gain the financial resources and social networks necessary to pursue opportunities in foreign countries. This suggests a complex relationship between development and migration, where progress can also act as a catalyst for outward movement. The lack of sufficient and attractive employment opportunities across all regions of Ethiopia emerges as a broader implication in addressing the root causes of economic migration. Furthermore, government bans on certain migration routes, while motivated by protection concerns, can have unintended negative consequences by driving migration into more dangerous, informal channels. The interplay between these factors highlights a causal relationship where a lack of decent job opportunities in rural areas fuels rural-urban migration, which in turn can strain the resources and infrastructure of urban centers.  

Political Instability, Conflict, and Violence:

Conflict emerges as a dominant and tragic driver of both internal displacement within Ethiopia and the flow of refugees into the country. The ongoing conflicts in various regions of Ethiopia, coupled with instability in neighboring countries, force large segments of the population to abandon their homes in search of safety and security. The conflict in the Tigray region, which erupted in November 2020, serves as a stark example, leading to the displacement of an estimated 2.1 million people. This single conflict underscores the devastating impact that political instability can have on displacement figures, directly causing the forced movement of civilians due to widespread violence, pervasive insecurity, and the disruption of essential services. Moreover, political instability has been shown to compound the problem of human trafficking and illegal migration, particularly in conflict-ridden regions such as Tigray. In such environments, the breakdown of law and order creates a power vacuum that allows criminal networks to operate with impunity, exploiting the vulnerability of individuals desperately seeking an escape from conflict. The desperation caused by war makes people more susceptible to false promises of employment and a better life, leading them into the hands of smugglers and traffickers. Ethnic tensions and localized conflicts also continue to be significant factors forcing people to flee their homes within Ethiopia. While the system of ethnic federalism in Ethiopia was intended to promote inclusivity and representation, it has also been identified as a structural cause of conflict-induced displacement. Disputes over land, resources, and political power, often along ethnic lines, frequently escalate into violent confrontations, resulting in the displacement of communities. At a deeper level, political oppression, persistent inequality, and long-standing historical enmity are recognized as fundamental root causes of conflict-induced displacement. Addressing these underlying political grievances is therefore crucial for preventing future instances of forced migration. Long-standing issues of marginalization and power imbalances can fuel resentment and conflict, ultimately leading to the displacement of populations. The timing of migration spikes can often be directly linked to specific political events, such as the signing of peace agreements or the outbreak of new conflicts. Political instability directly leads to conflict, which in turn causes the mass displacement of populations, highlighting a clear causal relationship. Achieving lasting solutions to the complex issue of displacement in Ethiopia necessitates addressing the underlying political issues and fostering a stable and peaceful environment.  

Environmental Degradation and Climate Change:

Environmental crises, most notably recurrent droughts and devastating floods, represent significant push factors compelling migration within and from Ethiopia. The escalating impacts of climate change are exacerbating these environmental vulnerabilities, leading to an increased frequency and intensity of displacement events. Prolonged periods of drought lead to widespread loss of livestock and significant crop failure, forcing pastoralist communities and agricultural workers to migrate in a desperate search for access to food and water resources. Similarly, severe floods can displace large populations, destroying homes, infrastructure, and agricultural livelihoods. Climate change interacts with existing socio-economic factors, influencing the complex decisions individuals and families make regarding migration. While the harsh realities of climate change can push people from their rural homes, the perceived pull of opportunities in urban centers and the evolving aspirations of younger generations also play a substantial role in shaping internal migration patterns. Factors such as land scarcity, overpopulation, the persistent threat of famine, and a lack of essential agricultural resources further compound the environmental pressures driving migration. The severe drought conditions in the broader Horn of Africa region have also been identified as a major factor influencing international migration along the well-traveled Eastern Route. This underscores that environmental degradation can have significant cross-border impacts on established migration patterns, as populations affected by drought in Ethiopia may migrate to neighboring countries like Djibouti in search of immediate relief and alternative means of sustaining their livelihoods. It is also important to recognize that migration itself can serve as a crucial adaptation strategy in response to the adverse effects of climate change. Individuals and families may choose to relocate to areas perceived as being less vulnerable to environmental hazards or actively seek opportunities for income diversification to reduce their dependence on climate-sensitive livelihoods like agriculture. Seasonal or temporary migration can provide crucial access to farmland in different regions or non-farm income sources, thereby helping households to better cope with the increasing variability and intensity of climate-related shocks. The impact of drought on migration is often deeply intertwined with pre-existing vulnerabilities within communities and can unfortunately lead to protracted periods of displacement. Climate change leads to a heightened frequency and intensity of droughts and floods, which in turn cause displacement and migration as traditional livelihoods are devastated, highlighting a clear causal relationship. Addressing the complex challenge of climate-induced migration requires a two-pronged approach that includes both global efforts to mitigate the root causes of climate change and the implementation of robust adaptation strategies at the local level to enhance the resilience of the most vulnerable communities.  

Social and Demographic Influences:

Social and demographic factors also significantly shape migration patterns within and from Ethiopia. Age and educational attainment are particularly important drivers of internal migration, with a notable trend of migrants being younger and possessing higher levels of education compared to their non-migrant counterparts in their places of origin. This suggests that younger, more educated individuals are more inclined to migrate in pursuit of enhanced opportunities for personal and professional growth. Educational attainment often increases an individual's awareness of available opportunities in urban centers and equips them with the necessary skills to navigate these new environments or to seek employment in other countries. Furthermore, the evolving desires and aspirations of young people, including a desire for greater freedom from traditional cultural restrictions, also contribute to internal migration flows. Social aspirations and the pursuit of greater personal autonomy play a significant role in migration decisions, with many young individuals migrating to urban areas seeking more individual freedom and different lifestyles compared to the often more restrictive social norms prevalent in rural settings. Social networks and community norms can also exert a considerable influence on migration decisions. Family and peer pressure, for instance, can significantly increase an individual's likelihood of considering international migration. Individuals may feel a strong sense of obligation or encouragement to migrate if they have family members or close friends who have already experienced success abroad, or if migration is widely perceived as a common and accepted pathway to economic improvement within their community. For women and girls in Ethiopia, factors such as early marriage and the threat or experience of sexual maltreatment can act as powerful drivers of migration. These gender-specific social factors can force vulnerable women and girls to migrate in search of safety, autonomy, and better life prospects in environments where they may be less susceptible to such harms. Harmful traditional practices and the pervasive threat of gender-based violence can push these individuals to seek refuge and opportunity elsewhere. Chain migration, where established social networks in destination areas significantly influence subsequent migration decisions, is also a notable pattern observed in Ethiopian migration. This highlights the importance of existing community ties in shaping where people choose to migrate. Increased access to education leads to higher aspirations and a greater likelihood of migration, particularly among youth actively seeking better opportunities, illustrating a clear causal relationship. Understanding these multifaceted social and demographic drivers is essential for the development of targeted interventions and effective policies related to the complex phenomenon of migration in Ethiopia.  

Patterns and Trends of Migration in Ethiopia:

The migration landscape of Ethiopia is characterized by distinct patterns and trends, encompassing significant internal displacement, notable rural-urban migration, substantial international emigration, and the country's role as a major recipient of refugees.

Internal Displacement: Scale, Causes, and Regional Distribution:

Ethiopia faces a considerable challenge with a large population of internally displaced persons (IDPs), with the total number fluctuating in response to ongoing conflicts and environmental shocks across the country. The sheer scale of internal displacement underscores the severity of the humanitarian and developmental challenges facing the nation. Millions of Ethiopians have been forced to leave their homes within their own borders due to conflict, pervasive violence, and devastating disasters, necessitating significant and sustained humanitarian assistance alongside long-term recovery efforts. Conflict stands out as the primary driver of this internal displacement, accounting for the vast majority of the individuals currently displaced within Ethiopia. Persistent political instability and deeply entrenched ethnic tensions are major underlying contributors to this conflict-induced displacement. Regions such as Tigray, Amhara, and Oromia have experienced particularly high levels of conflict and violence, leading to massive internal displacement events. However, drought and other climate-induced events also play a substantial and tragic role in forcing people to leave their homes within Ethiopia. Environmental factors are a crucial element in this complex picture, with consecutive seasons of failed rains and severe flooding displacing large numbers of people, particularly in regions where livelihoods are heavily dependent on rain-fed agriculture and pastoralism. The geographical distribution of IDPs across Ethiopia is notably uneven. Regions such as Oromia, Tigray, and Somali frequently host the highest numbers of internally displaced persons. This distribution reflects the unfortunate prevalence of conflict in the northern regions and the recurring environmental challenges, particularly drought, in the eastern and southern parts of the country. Encouragingly, a significant number of IDPs have returned to their areas of origin since 2022, particularly in the Tigray, Amhara, and Afar regions, following the signing of peace agreements. While these returns represent a positive step towards recovery, the long-term sustainability of these movements hinges on effectively addressing the root causes of the initial displacement and providing comprehensive and adequate support for the successful reintegration of returnees into their communities. Ongoing insecurity, the persistent lack of essential services, and unresolved underlying grievances continue to pose threats to the durability of these returns and could potentially lead to secondary displacement in the future. The number of conflict-induced IDPs has shown a significant increase in recent years, particularly during the period between 2018 and 2022. This alarming trend underscores the escalating impact of political instability and conflict on internal displacement within Ethiopia. A clear causal relationship exists where conflict and climate shocks directly cause internal displacement, leading to both immediate humanitarian crises and significant long-term development challenges for the nation. Addressing the complex and multifaceted issue of internal displacement in Ethiopia necessitates a comprehensive approach that integrates conflict resolution and sustained peacebuilding efforts with robust climate change adaptation strategies and the provision of durable solutions that enable displaced populations to rebuild their lives.  

Rural-Urban Migration: Motivations and Impacts:

Rural-urban migration represents a dominant pattern of internal population movement within Ethiopia, largely driven by individuals seeking enhanced work opportunities, better overall prospects, and an escape from the often harsh realities of rural life. Urban centers across Ethiopia act as powerful magnets, attracting individuals and families from rural areas where economic and social opportunities are often perceived as limited. The promise of more readily available jobs, access to superior educational facilities, and the presence of a wider range of services in cities motivate many rural residents to make the move. Notably, younger individuals and those with higher levels of educational attainment are more likely to engage in rural-urban migration. Education and youth are key demographic factors influencing the decision to migrate internally, as educated youth often harbor higher aspirations and actively seek opportunities that are typically concentrated in urban areas. However, this significant flow of people from rural to urban settings can also lead to various challenges in urban areas, including increased pressure on existing public services, rising rates of unemployment, and the proliferation of informal settlements and slums. Rapid urbanization can unfortunately strain the capacity of cities to effectively absorb large numbers of new migrants, potentially leading to social and economic challenges for both the migrants themselves and the long-established urban residents. Despite these challenges, many migrants who make the move from rural to urban areas often report their migration experience as positive overall, frequently citing the access to new and diverse opportunities that were simply unavailable in their rural places of origin. For many, the perceived benefits of urban life, such as employment prospects, educational advancements, and access to a broader range of services, outweigh the difficulties and hardships encountered during the initial migration process. Furthermore, rural-urban migration in Ethiopia is also influenced by social factors, such as young women seeking to escape arranged marriages and restrictive traditional gender roles prevalent in many rural communities. For these individuals, urban areas can offer a greater degree of personal freedom and more diverse opportunities compared to the often more constrained social environments of rural settings. The persistent poor living conditions and the lack of sufficient economic opportunities in rural areas serve as a primary push factor, compelling many rural residents to seek a better life in urban centers, highlighting a clear causal relationship that drives rapid urbanization and its associated challenges. Managing the complex phenomenon of rural-urban migration effectively requires the implementation of integrated urban and rural development strategies that aim to address the existing disparities between these areas and create sustainable opportunities in both rural and urban settings.  

International Emigration: Destinations, Reasons, and Challenges:

Over the past five years, a substantial number of Ethiopians, exceeding 800,000 individuals, have migrated abroad, primarily in pursuit of job opportunities and improved economic prospects, with the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia emerging as a major destination country for these labor migrants. This significant outflow underscores the importance of international labor migration as a key aspect of Ethiopia's overall migration landscape. Unfortunately, a considerable portion of this international migration from Ethiopia occurs through irregular channels, exposing migrants to heightened risks of exploitation, human trafficking, and various forms of abuse. The limited availability of safe and regular migration pathways often contributes to the prevalence of these irregular movements. Restrictive visa policies and the intense desperation for economic advancement can lead many Ethiopians to utilize informal and often highly dangerous routes in their pursuit of opportunities abroad. Ethiopian migrants frequently undertake perilous journeys, including the continued use of Yemen as a transit corridor despite the ongoing violent conflict within that country. This illustrates the extreme risks that migrants are willing to take in their pursuit of what they perceive as better opportunities in foreign lands. For many, the perceived potential benefits of migration, such as higher earning potential and improved living conditions, outweigh the significant dangers associated with these journeys. Tragically, a considerable number of Ethiopian migrants go missing during these arduous journeys, highlighting the severe human cost of irregular migration, which is often underreported and underestimated. The use of dangerous land and sea routes, coupled with the exploitative practices of smugglers and traffickers, contributes to the alarmingly high number of migrants who disappear without a trace. Ethiopia also experiences the phenomenon of "brain drain," as its skilled professionals, seeking more attractive career prospects and better compensation, emigrate to Western countries and other emerging economies across the globe. This out-migration of talented and educated individuals poses a significant challenge to Ethiopia's long-term development and can create shortages of qualified professionals in crucial sectors such as healthcare and education. On a more positive note, remittances sent back to Ethiopia by its migrants working abroad constitute a significant source of foreign exchange for the country and play a crucial role in alleviating poverty at the household level for many families. These financial inflows provide vital support to the Ethiopian economy and substantially improve the living standards of recipient families. The destinations of Ethiopian emigrants are diverse, reflecting the country's unique history of not being colonized and the influence of various factors such as geographic proximity to destination countries, the presence of established migrant networks, and the specific immigration policies of receiving nations. The lack of sufficient economic opportunities within Ethiopia serves as a major push factor, compelling many of its citizens, particularly the youth, to seek employment in other countries, often resorting to irregular channels in the process, illustrating a clear causal relationship. Effectively managing international labor migration from Ethiopia requires a multi-faceted approach that includes the creation of more regular and safer migration pathways, robustly protecting the rights of Ethiopian migrants working abroad, and strategically maximizing the significant benefits of remittances while actively working to mitigate the negative impacts of brain drain on the nation's development.  

Immigration and Refugee Influx: Origins, Numbers, and Host Community Impact:

Ethiopia stands as a major destination country for refugees and asylum-seekers fleeing conflict and instability in neighboring nations, particularly South Sudan, Somalia, and Eritrea. This role underscores Ethiopia's crucial position in providing refuge and humanitarian protection within the region. In 2018, Ethiopia, alongside Uganda, hosted the largest number of African migrants in the entire East Africa region , further highlighting its significance as a major refugee-hosting nation. This commitment to providing sanctuary is facilitated by Ethiopia's relatively advanced regime for the protection of forced migrants. The country has established a legal framework for recognizing and protecting the rights of refugees, being a signatory to key international and regional refugee conventions and enacting its own national legislation to uphold these principles. Refugees in Ethiopia primarily reside in designated refugee camps established across various regional states, although a number also live in urban areas, particularly in the capital city of Addis Ababa. While the policy of encampment has historically ensured the physical protection of refugees, it has also, until recently, significantly limited their freedom of movement and their opportunities for economic self-reliance. However, government policy has shown some evolution, with certain exceptions to the encampment rule and recent positive moves towards greater integration of refugees into Ethiopian society. The influx of large numbers of refugees can generate both positive and negative impacts on the Ethiopian host communities that generously receive them. On the one hand, the presence of refugees can place a considerable strain on limited local resources and existing infrastructure. On the other hand, it can also stimulate local economies through increased demand for goods and services and by introducing diverse skills and entrepreneurial spirit into the host areas. However, competition for scarce resources can sometimes lead to tensions between refugees and host communities. The 2018 peace agreement between Ethiopia and Eritrea was notably preceded by a significant spike in migration from Eritrea into Ethiopia. This event clearly illustrates how political developments in neighboring countries can directly and rapidly impact refugee flows into Ethiopia. The ongoing conflict and instability in neighboring countries directly cause these significant refugee influxes into Ethiopia, necessitating the establishment and sustained maintenance of refugee camps and comprehensive support systems. Effectively managing these refugee influxes demands strong international cooperation, the provision of adequate and timely funding, and the implementation of well-designed policies that promote the overall well-being of both the refugees seeking safety and the Ethiopian communities that host them.  

Impacts of Migration on Ethiopia:

Migration, in its various forms, exerts significant and multifaceted impacts on Ethiopia, affecting its economy, social fabric, cultural landscape, and humanitarian situation.

Economic Impacts: Remittances, Labor Market Dynamics, and Development:

Remittances sent by Ethiopian migrants working abroad constitute a substantial inflow of foreign exchange for the country and play a critical role in alleviating poverty at the household level for a significant portion of the population. These financial transfers provide vital support to the Ethiopian economy, supplementing household incomes and contributing to the nation's overall foreign currency reserves. Indeed, research indicates that international migration can lead to a tangible increase in the annual income of households in Ethiopia that have family members working abroad. This influx of income can have a direct and positive impact on the financial well-being and living standards of the families remaining in Ethiopia. However, it is crucial to acknowledge that these economic benefits for families often come at a considerable human cost for the migrants themselves, who frequently endure risky journeys to reach their destinations and face harsh and exploitative working conditions in foreign countries. The pursuit of income to send home can unfortunately expose migrants to various forms of abuse and dangerous situations. Ethiopia also faces the challenge of "brain drain," which refers to the emigration of its skilled professionals to countries offering better career opportunities and higher compensation. This loss of talented and educated individuals can hinder Ethiopia's long-term development and create shortages of qualified professionals in key sectors such as healthcare, education, and technology. Internal migration, particularly the movement of people from rural areas to urban centers, can contribute to the process of urbanization and has the potential to drive economic growth, especially in the urban areas that receive these migrants. The movement of labor to regions with greater economic activity can lead to increased productivity and overall development. Migrants often fill crucial labor demands in urban-based industries and service sectors, thereby contributing to economic expansion. However, the presence of large refugee populations within Ethiopia can unfortunately have a negative impact on the consumption expenditure per capita of host communities, particularly in rural areas, potentially leading to an increase in poverty levels among these host populations. The influx of refugees can strain limited local resources and may lead to increased competition for jobs and essential goods, as well as potential inflationary pressures, negatively affecting the economic well-being of host communities. Remittance inflows to Ethiopia experienced a decline after 2014, despite a concurrent increase in the number of Ethiopians migrating abroad. This trend may be attributable to factors such as political instability within Ethiopia and the global economic disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. There exists a clear causal relationship where international migration leads to significant inflows of remittances, which can be a vital tool for poverty reduction, but this process may also be accompanied by negative consequences for the individual migrants involved. Maximizing the economic benefits that migration can offer to Ethiopia requires the implementation of well-designed policies that support safe and regular migration pathways, robustly protect the rights of Ethiopian migrants working in foreign countries, encourage the flow of remittances through formal and transparent channels, and actively address the economic challenges that may be faced by host communities receiving refugees.  

Social and Cultural Impacts: Integration, Social Cohesion, and Family Structures:

Migration has profound social and cultural ramifications for Ethiopia, significantly influencing family structures, reshaping community dynamics, and impacting overall social cohesion. The act of migration often leads to the transformation of traditional family structures, with family members frequently being separated for extended periods as individuals seek opportunities in distant locations. This separation can have significant social and emotional consequences for both the migrants themselves and the family members they leave behind, often leading to emotional distress and considerable challenges in maintaining close family relationships across long distances. The return of migrants to their home communities can also lead to complex social and cultural exchanges. While returnees may bring back new ideas, skills, and perspectives that can enrich local communities, their experiences and the changes they have undergone can sometimes create tension and friction due to differing values and expectations between the returnees and those who remained in the community. Internal migration within Ethiopia, particularly rural-rural migration that occurs without the support of adequate institutional frameworks, has the potential to result in inter-ethnic conflict in the areas where migrants settle. This highlights the risk that migration can exacerbate existing ethnic tensions if not carefully managed and supported. Competition for limited resources and land between newly arrived migrant communities and established host communities can unfortunately escalate into conflict along ethnic lines. However, positive interactions between refugees and their host communities can also occur. Refugees and hosts often interact through various channels such as trade and commerce, participation in religious ceremonies, attendance at social and sporting events, and by utilizing shared social services. These regular interactions can play a crucial role in fostering trust and understanding between the different communities. Conversely, tensions can unfortunately arise when there are perceived inequities in the access to and quality of essential services for both the refugee populations and the host communities. If one group is perceived as having preferential access to resources or higher quality services, it can unfortunately breed resentment and undermine overall social cohesion within the community. The absence of labor from rural areas due to migration can also have social impacts, forcing those who remain behind to work longer hours to manage essential tasks, leaving them with less time for leisure activities and social engagements. Migration can lead to the breakdown of traditional family structures due to the physical separation of family members and the potential adoption of new cultural norms and values by those who migrate. Promoting positive social and cultural impacts of migration requires a concerted effort to foster inclusive environments, actively address any existing inequalities, and facilitate meaningful and respectful interaction between migrant populations and their host communities.  

Humanitarian Impacts: Needs of Displaced Populations and Refugees:

Forced migration, whether internal displacement or international refugee flows, often results in significant humanitarian needs for the affected populations. Internally displaced persons (IDPs) and refugees frequently face dire circumstances, including severe food insecurity, inadequate or no shelter, and limited or no access to essential resources such as clean water, basic healthcare services, and educational opportunities. These situations necessitate immediate and comprehensive humanitarian assistance to alleviate suffering and ensure basic survival. Women and children constitute a substantial proportion of both refugee and internally displaced populations in Ethiopia and are often particularly vulnerable to a range of protection risks. Humanitarian responses must therefore prioritize the specific needs and vulnerabilities of these groups, addressing issues such as gender-based violence, exploitation, and the unique challenges faced by unaccompanied minors. Access to a safe and reliable supply of clean water remains a critical issue for refugees residing in Ethiopia. Tragically, women and girls, who are often tasked with the responsibility of collecting water for their families, face an increased risk of experiencing sexual and gender-based violence as they travel alone for many hours to reach water sources. Ensuring access to education for refugee children is another major humanitarian challenge, although significant efforts are being made to enroll more refugee children in primary education programs across the country. Providing access to education is crucial for the long-term well-being, personal development, and future prospects of children who have been displaced by conflict and instability. The ongoing conflict in Northern Ethiopia has severely disrupted the delivery of essential humanitarian aid to the affected internally displaced persons, returnees attempting to go back to their homes, and refugees who were residing in the region. Conflict and insecurity can create significant impediments to humanitarian access, making it extremely challenging for aid organizations to reach and provide assistance to those most in need. Prolonged periods of displacement can unfortunately lead to an increased reliance on negative and harmful coping mechanisms among refugees, such as a rise in early child marriages and an increase in child labor. Forced migration in Ethiopia frequently results in dire humanitarian situations, requiring sustained and comprehensive assistance to effectively protect and support the affected populations. Conflict and disasters directly cause displacement, which in turn leads to humanitarian crises characterized by a severe lack of food, adequate shelter, access to clean water, and essential healthcare services. Addressing the profound humanitarian impacts of migration necessitates the timely and sufficient provision of aid, with a particular focus on reaching the most vulnerable individuals and ensuring safe and dignified access to all essential services.  

Solutions and Governance of Migration in Ethiopia:

The Ethiopian government, in collaboration with international organizations and non-governmental partners, has been actively involved in developing and implementing various policies, strategies, and programs aimed at managing migration, protecting migrants and refugees, and addressing the root causes of displacement.

Ethiopian Government Policies, Strategies, and Institutional Frameworks:

Within the Ethiopian government, the primary responsibility for handling migration-related matters rests with the Department for Immigration and Nationality Affairs. Additionally, the Administration for Refugee and Returnee Affairs (ARRA) plays a crucial role in hosting and providing assistance to asylum-seekers who seek refuge in Ethiopia due to man-made or natural disasters. In a significant policy shift in 2018, Ethiopia lifted a five-year ban that had been in place on Ethiopian migrants seeking work abroad in the Gulf region. This decision aimed to better regulate overseas employment opportunities for Ethiopians and to enhance the protection of their rights as migrant workers. Recognizing the importance of public awareness and informed decision-making regarding migration, the government has launched a National Communication Strategy to Prevent Irregular Migration and Promote Regular Pathways for the period of 2025-2029. This strategy serves as a guiding framework for government institutions, civil society organizations, international partners, and the media to harmonize their messaging and raise public awareness about the potential risks associated with irregular migration while highlighting the available safe and legal migration options. The Ethiopian government also recognizes the valuable contributions that its diaspora community can make to the nation's development and has established a comprehensive Diaspora Policy to facilitate their engagement in various sectors. This policy aims to create frameworks for collaboration between the government and the Ethiopian diaspora, encouraging them to contribute through remittances, the transfer of valuable skills and knowledge, and investments in the country. In response to the significant challenge of internal displacement, the Ethiopian government endorsed an IDP recovery plan in 2019. This plan was designed to provide a roadmap for addressing the complex situation of the millions of internally displaced persons across the country, focusing on facilitating their safe return, reintegration into their communities, and overall recovery. Furthermore, in November 2024, Ethiopia launched a national strategy specifically aimed at implementing solutions pathways for internal displacement. This strategy aligns with the United Nations Secretary-General's Action Agenda on Internal Displacement and signifies the government's commitment to moving beyond immediate relief efforts towards achieving durable and sustainable solutions for those displaced within Ethiopia's borders. The government's approach to managing refugees has evolved over time. While a strict encampment policy was in place for many years, recent policy changes, including the 2019 Refugee Proclamation, reflect a move towards greater inclusion and the granting of work permits to refugees. This policy shift aims to enhance refugees' self-reliance and allow them to contribute more actively to the Ethiopian economy and society. The Ethiopian government has established a range of policies and institutions to manage the multifaceted aspects of migration, protect the rights and well-being of migrants and refugees, and address the complex challenges posed by internal displacement, with an increasing emphasis on achieving durable and sustainable solutions and actively engaging its diaspora.  

The Role of the UNHCR in Refugee Protection and Solutions:

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) collaborates closely with the Ethiopian government to provide essential protection and comprehensive assistance to refugees and asylum-seekers who have sought refuge within the country's borders. UNHCR plays a vital role as a key partner in supporting refugees in Ethiopia, providing a wide array of essential services that include emergency shelter, the distribution of food and other essential relief items, ensuring access to clean water and sanitation facilities, facilitating access to necessary healthcare services, and supporting educational programs for refugee children. Recognizing the critical importance of legal status and documentation for refugees, UNHCR actively supports the Ethiopian government in the registration and provision of identification documents to refugees and asylum-seekers. These legal documents are crucial for enabling refugees to access their rights and the various services available to them within Ethiopia. In line with the global commitment to fostering the inclusion of refugees, UNHCR advocates for their integration into national systems, particularly in key areas such as education and healthcare. This approach aims to promote the long-term self-reliance of refugees and reduce their dependence on continuous humanitarian aid by ensuring they have access to the same essential services as Ethiopian nationals. To further support vulnerable refugees in meeting their basic needs and promoting their economic well-being, UNHCR provides cash assistance programs. These cash-based interventions empower refugees by allowing them to prioritize their most pressing needs and purchase goods and services directly from local markets, thereby also stimulating the local economy. UNHCR is also actively involved in the pursuit of durable solutions for refugees in Ethiopia, including facilitating voluntary repatriation for those who wish to return to their home countries when conditions allow, supporting resettlement to third countries for refugees with specific protection needs, and promoting local integration within Ethiopia for those who are unlikely to return home in the near future. Finding these long-term solutions is essential for enabling refugees to rebuild their lives with dignity and security. Despite the crucial role played by UNHCR in Ethiopia, its programs unfortunately face significant funding shortages, which severely limit the extent and effectiveness of the assistance that can be provided to the large refugee population. Conflict in neighboring countries directly leads to the continuous influx of refugees into Ethiopia, underscoring the vital role of UNHCR's intervention in providing immediate humanitarian assistance and crucial protection. Sustained and increased financial support from the international community is therefore absolutely crucial for UNHCR to effectively carry out its important mandate and continue providing life-saving assistance and working towards durable solutions for refugees in Ethiopia.  

IOM's Programs for Migration Management and Assistance:

The International Organization for Migration (IOM) works in close partnership with the Ethiopian government to enhance migration governance across all its dimensions and to effectively address the complex challenges associated with irregular migration. IOM serves as a key partner in strengthening Ethiopia's overall migration management systems, providing valuable technical support, engaging in capacity-building initiatives for government officials, and offering expert policy advice on a wide range of migration-related issues. To provide direct assistance to migrants who find themselves in vulnerable situations along key migration routes, IOM operates a network of Migration Response Centres (MRCs). These MRCs fill a critical gap by offering immediate support, including the provision of food and temporary shelter, access to essential information about migration risks and safe pathways, and referrals to other relevant services. The MRCs play a vital role in identifying and assisting vulnerable migrants, including those who have become victims of human trafficking or find themselves stranded during their journeys. IOM also provides crucial assistance with the voluntary return and sustainable reintegration of migrants who are either unable or unwilling to remain in their host or transit countries and wish to return voluntarily to their countries of origin. This comprehensive support includes arranging safe and dignified return transportation, providing temporary accommodation upon arrival, offering essential medical support, and facilitating reintegration into their home communities through various forms of assistance. Recognizing the significant potential of the Ethiopian diaspora, IOM actively supports the government's efforts to harness their human and financial capital for the country's overall development. IOM assists in mapping the Ethiopian diaspora in prominent destination countries and facilitates the mobilization of their financial, human, and technical resources for application to national development priorities within Ethiopia. Furthermore, IOM is increasingly focused on addressing the issue of forced migration that results from environmental factors and works to assist communities affected by the impacts of climate change. This includes integrating environmental considerations into all aspects of migration management, such as border management, labor migration and integration programs, and return and reintegration initiatives. IOM's work in Ethiopia is guided by the fundamental principle of being demand-driven by the Government of Ethiopia. The phenomenon of irregular migration often leads to significant vulnerabilities and risks for the individuals involved, prompting IOM to establish and operate Migration Response Centres along key routes to provide immediate assistance and essential protection. Effective migration management necessitates strong and collaborative partnerships and close coordination between the Ethiopian government and international organizations such as IOM.  

Contributions of National and International NGOs:

A diverse array of national and international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) play a vital and multifaceted role in providing crucial humanitarian assistance, protection services, and various forms of support to refugees, internally displaced persons, and migrants across Ethiopia. These NGOs serve as indispensable partners in addressing the complex needs of vulnerable populations who have been affected by migration and displacement. Operating on the ground, these organizations often provide direct services that range from distributing emergency food and shelter to offering essential healthcare and psychosocial support. They also play a critical role in advocating for the rights and well-being of migrants and displaced persons at various levels. Some NGOs specifically focus their efforts on addressing the underlying root causes of migration by implementing programs aimed at creating sustainable livelihood and employment opportunities, particularly for vulnerable groups such as women and youth. By tackling the drivers of migration, these organizations contribute to finding more lasting solutions. Faith-based organizations also make significant contributions by providing both material and spiritual support to refugees and displaced people, often drawing upon their strong community networks and moral authority to advocate for their needs. The collective efforts of national and international NGOs are crucial in addressing the diverse challenges associated with migration in Ethiopia, working in a wide spectrum of areas from providing immediate emergency relief to implementing long-term development initiatives. Effective coordination among the various NGOs themselves and with the relevant government agencies is absolutely vital for maximizing the overall impact of their interventions and ensuring that there is no unnecessary duplication of efforts or fragmentation of limited resources. Displacement crises invariably create significant humanitarian needs, which in turn prompt NGOs to step in and provide essential assistance and protection to the affected populations. Strengthening partnerships and fostering close coordination among all stakeholders, including the government, international organizations, and the diverse range of NGOs operating in Ethiopia, is essential for ensuring a comprehensive and truly effective response to the complex and evolving migration issues facing the country.  

Peacebuilding and Conflict Resolution Initiatives:

Given that conflict is a major driver of displacement in Ethiopia, peacebuilding and conflict resolution initiatives are absolutely crucial for preventing future displacement and creating a stable and secure environment. Addressing the root causes of conflict is essential for achieving long-term stability and preventing further forced migration. Peacebuilding efforts typically involve promoting inclusive dialogue, facilitating reconciliation processes, and addressing the underlying grievances that fuel conflict among different groups within society. The Ethiopian government, in collaboration with various United Nations agencies, has launched a national process aimed at developing a comprehensive and inclusive peacebuilding strategy for the country. This initiative reflects the government's recognition of the critical importance of a holistic approach to achieving lasting peace and stability. Religious institutions in Ethiopia, given the country's multi-faith character and the significant influence that religious leaders hold within their communities, have a vital role to play in fostering peace and reconciliation. Religious actors can often serve as effective mediators in conflict situations and promote reconciliation by leveraging their moral authority and the trust they have within their respective communities to bridge divides and facilitate dialogue. Various initiatives, such as the Healing and Reconciliation (HEAR) Project, specifically focus on addressing the deep-seated trauma caused by conflict and fostering community-led reconciliation processes in regions that have been significantly affected by violence. These types of projects recognize that addressing the psychological and social wounds of conflict is crucial for achieving lasting peace and preventing future cycles of violence. They aim to promote healing, rebuild trust among communities, and ultimately prevent further displacement. Peacebuilding and conflict resolution efforts need to be designed to be inclusive, actively involving a wide range of stakeholders, including community elders, influential religious leaders, women's groups, and youth representatives. The unfortunate reality is that conflict and political instability directly lead to displacement, underscoring the fundamental need for robust peacebuilding initiatives to address the underlying causes of these conflicts and create a more peaceful and stable society. Investing in and strengthening peacebuilding and conflict resolution mechanisms is therefore absolutely crucial for creating a secure environment that significantly reduces the likelihood of future forced migration events.  

Climate Change Adaptation Strategies and Migration:

Given the significant role that environmental factors, particularly drought and land degradation, play in driving migration in Ethiopia, the implementation of effective climate change adaptation strategies is of paramount importance for reducing displacement and other forms of migration caused by environmental pressures. Building resilience to the adverse impacts of climate change can empower communities to remain in their homes and sustain their livelihoods in the face of environmental challenges. These adaptation measures often include improving agricultural practices to be more climate-smart, implementing more efficient and sustainable water management techniques, and establishing and strengthening early warning systems to prepare for and mitigate the effects of extreme weather events. The Ethiopian government has developed a comprehensive National Adaptation Plan (NAP-ETH) to address the wide-ranging impacts of climate change across various key sectors of the economy and society. This plan reflects the government's recognition of the urgent need for a coordinated and strategic approach to climate adaptation. The NAP-ETH outlines a series of strategies and actions aimed at enhancing food security through climate-resilient agriculture, improving access to potable water resources, strengthening the sustainable management of natural resources, and increasing the overall resilience of urban systems to climate-related shocks. It is also important to acknowledge that migration itself can serve as a viable and sometimes necessary adaptation strategy for individuals and households facing the impacts of climate change. People may choose to move to areas that are less vulnerable to specific environmental hazards or to diversify their sources of income through migration to reduce their dependence on climate-sensitive livelihoods. Seasonal or temporary migration, for instance, can provide access to alternative farmland in different regions or opportunities for non-farm employment, thereby helping households to better cope with the increasing variability and intensity of climate-related shocks. Climate change impacts and the corresponding adaptation needs are not uniform across the entire population, and adaptation strategies must therefore carefully consider the specific vulnerabilities of different groups within society, including women, children, and impoverished communities. These particularly vulnerable groups may require targeted support and tailored interventions to effectively adapt to the changing climate. Traditional ecological knowledge, which has been developed and refined over generations, can also play a valuable role in informing and enhancing the effectiveness of climate change adaptation strategies at the local level. The increasing threat of climate change leads to environmental degradation and a higher frequency of extreme weather events, which in turn drive displacement and migration, underscoring the urgent need for the widespread implementation of effective adaptation strategies. Integrating climate change adaptation measures into national development plans and policies is absolutely crucial for building long-term resilience and ultimately reducing the scale and impact of climate-related migration in Ethiopia.  

Efforts Towards Improved Migration Governance and Regional Cooperation:

The Ethiopian government is actively engaged in ongoing efforts to strengthen its overall migration governance frameworks at both the national and regional levels, working in close collaboration with international organizations such as the International Organization for Migration (IOM). This commitment reflects a recognition of the need for robust and effective systems to manage the complexities of migration. These efforts include the development and implementation of national strategies, the strengthening of relevant government institutions, and the enhancement of coordination mechanisms among various stakeholders involved in migration management. Given the inherently cross-border nature of many migration issues, particularly refugee flows and labor migration, regional cooperation is also of paramount importance. Ethiopia actively participates in regional dialogues and collaborative initiatives aimed at effectively managing migration flows across borders and ensuring the protection of the rights and well-being of migrants throughout the region. The Migration Governance Indicators (MGI) serve as a valuable framework for assessing the comprehensiveness of a country's migration governance structures and for identifying specific areas where further improvements can be made. Tools like the MGI help to facilitate discussions among government agencies and other relevant stakeholders on how to strengthen migration management systems and align them with international best practices. Ethiopia has also demonstrated its commitment to international standards and principles by becoming a champion country for the Global Compact for Migration (GCM). This signifies the government's intention to align its national migration policies and practices with the objectives outlined in the GCM, which provides a comprehensive framework for safe, orderly, and regular migration. Despite the progress being made, challenges unfortunately remain in fully aligning national migration frameworks with all relevant international standards and ensuring the consistent and effective implementation of these frameworks across all levels of governance. The complex nature of migration necessitates strong and adaptive governance frameworks and enhanced regional cooperation to address its various interconnected dimensions in a truly effective manner. Continuous and sustained efforts to strengthen migration governance at both the national and regional levels, coupled with enhanced collaboration among all relevant partners, are absolutely essential for effectively managing migration flows, protecting the rights of migrants, and maximizing the potential benefits of migration for both Ethiopia and the wider Horn of Africa region.  

Refugee Integration and Self-Reliance Programs:

There is a growing and important recognition within Ethiopia and among its international partners of the need to move beyond traditional camp-based approaches to managing refugee populations and instead focus on promoting their gradual integration into Ethiopian society and fostering their long-term self-reliance. Enabling refugees to become self-sufficient not only improves their overall well-being and dignity but also reduces their long-term dependence on humanitarian aid and can contribute positively to the economies of the host communities. In a significant policy development, Ethiopia's 2019 Refugee Proclamation granted refugees a wider range of rights, including the right to seek and engage in employment, the freedom to move and reside outside of designated camps, and the right to access educational opportunities. This progressive policy shift represents a crucial step towards achieving greater socio-economic inclusion for refugees in Ethiopia. Following the enactment of this proclamation, various initiatives and programs have been launched to further support refugee integration and self-reliance. Projects such as the Refugee Integration and Self-reliance in Ethiopia (RISE) project and the Strengthening Host and Refugee Populations in Ethiopia (SHARPE) program are specifically designed to enhance the employability of refugees and create more diverse economic opportunities for both refugees and members of the host communities. These programs often focus on providing specialized skills training, offering support for the development of small businesses, and facilitating crucial linkages to local and regional markets. Partnerships with the private sector are increasingly recognized as vital for creating sustainable economic opportunities for refugees, allowing them to integrate into existing supply chains and contribute to the broader economy. The World Bank also supports various projects in Ethiopia that aim to improve access to essential social services and expand the availability of economic opportunities for both refugee populations and the Ethiopian communities that host them. These development-focused approaches acknowledge the interconnected needs of both groups and strive to promote local integration in a way that benefits everyone and reduces potential tensions. Despite the significant progress made and the positive policy changes, the actual implementation of refugee integration policies on the ground can unfortunately be a slow and challenging process, often facing various barriers related to political will, economic constraints, and logistical hurdles. Achieving successful and meaningful refugee integration ultimately requires a sustained and collaborative commitment from the Ethiopian government, international organizations, the private sector, the host communities themselves, and the refugee populations, as well as a dedicated effort to actively address and overcome the existing barriers to full inclusion.  

Challenges and Future Directions:

Despite the ongoing efforts and progress made, Ethiopia continues to face a multitude of challenges in effectively managing migration and addressing the humanitarian needs of displaced populations and refugees.

Obstacles to Effective Migration Management and Humanitarian Response:

The persistent instability both within Ethiopia and in the wider Horn of Africa region remains a significant obstacle, leading to further displacement and hindering the implementation of effective migration management strategies. Ongoing conflicts and political tensions create an environment of uncertainty and can disrupt humanitarian access, impede the delivery of essential services, and generate new waves of displacement. Furthermore, economic instability within Ethiopia, characterized by slowing growth rates and rising inflation, presents additional challenges. These macroeconomic factors can exacerbate the vulnerabilities of both migrants and host communities and limit the resources available for addressing migration-related issues. The lack of access to certain regions within Ethiopia, often due to insecurity and logistical constraints, significantly hampers the ability of organizations to collect accurate data on displacement and to deliver much-needed humanitarian assistance to affected populations. Weak coordination among the various actors involved in refugee and migration management, coupled with limitations in appropriate government structures, can also hinder the process of refugee economic inclusion and overall migration governance. Social tensions, including those related to ethnic balance, competition for scarce jobs and resources, and perceptions of inequity in the delivery of services, can unfortunately limit the political will necessary for achieving greater inclusion of refugees and effectively managing migration flows. The COVID-19 pandemic unfortunately exacerbated many of these existing challenges, significantly affecting access to asylum procedures for newly arriving individuals, disrupting the delivery of essential humanitarian aid, and increasing the overall vulnerability of migrants and displaced persons throughout the country. Overcoming these multifaceted obstacles requires a sustained and collaborative effort involving the Ethiopian government, international organizations, local communities, and the affected populations themselves, with a strong focus on addressing the root causes of instability, strengthening coordination mechanisms, and building resilience at all levels.  

Funding Limitations and Resource Constraints:

Critically low levels of funding represent a major constraint on the ability of UNHCR and other humanitarian organizations to provide adequate and timely assistance to the large number of refugees and internally displaced persons in Ethiopia. This lack of sufficient financial resources severely limits the scope and overall effectiveness of humanitarian operations, leading to shortages of essential supplies such as food, water, and medicine, reduced access to vital services, and an increased vulnerability among the displaced populations. Tragically, the humanitarian situation in Ethiopia has unfortunately been receiving less public attention on the global stage in recent years, resulting in a decline in the level of international financial support available to address these pressing needs. This decrease in funding can have severe and far-reaching consequences for the millions of people who rely on humanitarian assistance for their survival and well-being. Furthermore, the already scarce local resources within Ethiopian host communities are often significantly strained by the presence of large refugee populations, creating additional challenges for both the refugees and their hosts. Supporting refugees effectively requires also providing adequate support to the host communities to avoid potential resentment and to promote overall social cohesion. The mismanagement of food assistance intended for refugees has also been a serious issue, leading to interruptions in the delivery of aid and further exacerbating the vulnerability of this already at-risk population. The persistent lack of adequate and sustained financial support from the international community remains a critical challenge that must be addressed to effectively respond to the humanitarian crisis and to support the long-term pursuit of durable solutions for migration issues in Ethiopia.  

The Pursuit of Durable Solutions for Displacement:

There is a growing and vital shift in focus from providing short-term emergency relief towards the pursuit of durable and sustainable solutions for the large populations of internally displaced persons and refugees in Ethiopia. This paradigm shift recognizes that protracted displacement situations require long-term strategies that go beyond immediate humanitarian aid and empower displaced individuals to rebuild their lives with dignity and security. These durable solutions typically include facilitating voluntary return to their places of origin when conditions become safe and conducive, promoting local integration within Ethiopia for those who are unlikely to return in the foreseeable future, and exploring options for resettlement to third countries for individuals with specific protection needs. The Ethiopian government has taken a proactive role in this endeavor by launching initiatives such as the Durable Solutions Initiative (DSI), which aims to create the necessary conditions for internally displaced persons to rebuild their lives and achieve a sense of normalcy. The DSI provides a principled operational framework for designing and implementing comprehensive solutions that support the sustainable return, voluntary relocation, and local integration of IDPs. Recognizing the importance of economic inclusion for refugees, the Ethiopian government has also taken steps to promote local integration as a key pathway for their livelihoods. Notably, the 2019 Refugee Proclamation granted refugees the right to seek employment and access financial services, which are crucial steps towards enabling them to become self-reliant and contribute to the local economy. Despite the growing emphasis on and commitment to durable solutions, the implementation of these strategies unfortunately faces a number of significant challenges, including persistent resource mobilization constraints, ongoing insecurity in various parts of the country, and the continued need for enhanced coordination among the diverse range of stakeholders involved in the process. The complex nature of protracted displacement necessitates a fundamental shift from relying solely on short-term humanitarian aid to investing in long-term durable solutions that address the underlying root causes of displacement and provide comprehensive support for the successful reintegration of displaced populations. Achieving these lasting solutions requires a truly comprehensive and collaborative approach that actively involves the Ethiopian government, international organizations, the host communities who generously receive displaced populations, and the displaced persons themselves, ensuring their voices and needs are central to the process.  

Emerging Trends and Future Considerations for Migration in Ethiopia:

Looking ahead, several emerging trends and future considerations are likely to shape the migration landscape of Ethiopia. Climate change is projected to play an increasingly significant role in driving migration patterns, both internally within Ethiopia and internationally across its borders. As the impacts of climate change intensify, more individuals and communities will likely be displaced by the increasing frequency and severity of droughts, floods, and other environmental hazards that undermine livelihoods and threaten lives. The trend of urbanization in Ethiopia is also expected to continue, with rural-urban migration remaining a significant demographic force as people seek better opportunities and services in urban centers. The persistent disparities in opportunities and the overall quality of life between rural and urban areas will likely continue to fuel this internal migration. Furthermore, international labor migration will probably remain a key livelihood strategy for many Ethiopians, as individuals continue to seek employment opportunities in other countries, particularly in the Middle East and in South Africa. The ongoing demand for labor in these destination countries, coupled with the economic pressures and limited job opportunities within Ethiopia, will likely continue to drive this outward migration. These emerging trends highlight the increasing interconnectedness of climate change, conflict, and migration, which will likely present increasingly complex and multifaceted humanitarian challenges in the years to come. Future planning for migration management and humanitarian response in Ethiopia will therefore need to proactively take these emerging trends into careful consideration and develop comprehensive and adaptable strategies to address the evolving dynamics of human mobility.  

Conclusion and Recommendations:

Ethiopia's migration landscape is shaped by a complex interplay of factors, resulting in significant internal and international movements. Economic hardship, political instability, environmental crises, and social dynamics all contribute to these flows, generating both opportunities and challenges for the country. While remittances from abroad provide crucial economic support, Ethiopia also grapples with brain drain and the strain of hosting a large refugee population. Internal displacement due to conflict and environmental disasters remains a major humanitarian concern. The Ethiopian government, in partnership with international organizations and NGOs, is actively pursuing various solutions, including policy reforms, humanitarian assistance, peacebuilding initiatives, climate change adaptation strategies, and programs aimed at improving migration governance and fostering refugee integration. However, significant obstacles persist, including regional instability, economic constraints, funding limitations, and social tensions. Future migration trends will likely be shaped by the increasing impacts of climate change, continued urbanization, and the ongoing demand for international labor.

To effectively address Ethiopia's multifaceted migration issues and build more resilient and sustainable solutions, the following recommendations are put forth:

1. Strengthen Governance and Policy Frameworks: The Ethiopian government should continue to strengthen its national migration policy framework, ensuring its alignment with international standards and best practices. This includes developing a comprehensive national migration strategy that integrates existing policies and addresses gaps in areas such as labor migration, migrant rights, and the inclusion of migrants in national development plans. Enhanced coordination among government ministries and agencies involved in migration management is also crucial.  
2. Invest in Peacebuilding and Conflict Resolution: To address the primary driver of internal displacement, sustained investment in peacebuilding and conflict resolution initiatives is essential. This includes supporting local peace initiatives, promoting inclusive dialogue and reconciliation processes, and addressing the root causes of conflict such as political grievances, ethnic tensions, and competition over resources.  
3. Implement Climate Change Adaptation Strategies: Given the increasing impact of environmental factors on migration, scaling up and effectively implementing climate change adaptation strategies is vital. This involves investing in climate-smart agriculture, sustainable water management, drought-resistant crops, and early warning systems to enhance the resilience of vulnerable communities and reduce climate-induced displacement.  
4. Create Regular and Safe Pathways for Labor Migration: To reduce reliance on irregular migration and protect the rights of Ethiopian workers abroad, the government should work to establish more regular and safer pathways for international labor migration. This includes negotiating and implementing bilateral labor agreements with key destination countries that ensure fair working conditions, protect migrant rights, and facilitate remittances through formal channels.  
5. Promote Sustainable Economic Development and Job Creation: Addressing the economic drivers of migration requires a concerted effort to promote sustainable and inclusive economic development across all regions of Ethiopia. This includes investing in rural development, supporting small and medium-sized enterprises, creating decent job opportunities for youth, and enhancing vocational training programs to match labor market demands.  
6. Enhance Support for Host Communities: Recognizing the significant burden placed on communities hosting refugees and internally displaced persons, it is crucial to enhance support to these host communities. This includes providing resources to improve infrastructure, expand access to social services, and create economic opportunities that benefit both host communities and displaced populations, fostering social cohesion and reducing potential tensions.  
7. Ensure Adequate and Sustained Funding: Addressing the complex migration issues in Ethiopia requires adequate and sustained financial support from both the Ethiopian government and the international community. Increased funding is essential for humanitarian assistance, the implementation of durable solutions, and long-term development programs aimed at addressing the root causes of migration.  
8. Improve Data Collection and Analysis: Strengthening the collection, analysis, and dissemination of comprehensive and reliable data on migration trends, the needs of migrants and displaced persons, and the impacts of interventions is crucial for evidence-based policymaking and effective program design.  
9. Foster Collaboration and Coordination: Enhanced collaboration and coordination among all stakeholders involved in migration management and humanitarian response, including government agencies, international organizations, NGOs, civil society groups, and the private sector, are essential for a more effective and comprehensive approach.  
10. Invest in Education and Awareness Campaigns: To promote safe migration practices and combat the dangers of human trafficking and smuggling, investing in education and public awareness campaigns targeting potential migrants and their communities is crucial. These campaigns should provide accurate information about the risks of irregular migration and the available legal pathways.  
11. Strengthen Social Protection Systems: Establishing and strengthening social protection systems can provide a safety net for vulnerable migrants, returnees, and internally displaced persons, helping them to meet their basic needs and facilitating their reintegration into communities.

By implementing these multi-layered recommendations, Ethiopia can move towards a more comprehensive and sustainable approach to managing migration, addressing its root causes, mitigating its negative impacts, and harnessing its potential for the benefit of all.

Key Tables:

Table 1: Refugee Population in Ethiopia by Country of Origin (as of March 31, 2025)

Country of Origin	Number of Refugees	Percentage of Total Refugee Population
South Sudan	430,342	40.0%
Somalia	360,837	33.5%
Eritrea	179,766	16.7%
Sudan	94,139	8.7%
Others	8,293	0.8%
Yemen	2,617	0.2%
Total	1,075,982	100%

 

Table 2: Trends in Internal Displacement in Ethiopia (2018-2023)

Year	Conflict-Induced IDPs (Year End)	Disaster-Induced IDPs (Year End)	Total IDPs (Year End)
2018	2,137,000	296,000*	2,433,000
2019	1,324,000	390,000	1,714,000
2020	2,060,000	633,000	2,693,000
2021	3,589,000	579,000	4,168,000
2022	3,852,000	717,000	4,569,000
2023	2,900,000	881,000	3,781,000

 

Table 3: Key Ethiopian Government Policies and Strategies Related to Migration

Policy/Strategy Name	Year Implemented/Launched	Main Objectives
Immigration and Nationality Affairs Department	N/A	Handles general immigration and nationality matters
Administration for Refugee and Returnee Affairs (ARRA)	N/A	Hosts and provides assistance to asylum-seekers and returnees
Lifting of Ban on Labor Migration to the Gulf Region	2018	To regulate overseas employment and protect Ethiopian migrant workers
National Communication Strategy to Prevent Irregular Migration and Promote Regular Pathways	2025-2029	To raise public awareness about the risks of irregular migration and promote safe migration options
Diaspora Policy	N/A	To engage the Ethiopian diaspora in the country's development efforts
IDP Recovery Plan	2019	To address the displacement situation of internally displaced persons nationwide
National Strategy to Implement Solutions Pathways to Internal Displacement	2024	To foster stability, resilience, and inclusive development for IDPs and host communities
Refugee Proclamation (No. 1110/2019)	2019	To expand the rights of refugees, including the right to work, freedom of movement, and access to education

Sources used in the report

unocha.org

Ethiopia: Internal Displacement Overview (as of June 2024) - OCHA

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internal-displacement.org

Ethiopia | IDMC - Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre

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unrefugees.org.uk

Ethiopia | Donate To Refugees & Displaced People - United Kingdom for UNHCR

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dtm.iom.int

National Displacement Report

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 About the Author:

Tahir Ali Shah is a humanitarian professional with over 20 years of experience managing protection and development programs across South Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. He has worked extensively in refugee response, child protection, and humanitarian advocacy. He can be reached at tshaha@gmail.com